Walter Makous

Walter MakousPhD, Brown University, 1964
Professor, Brain & Cognitive Sciences, Ophthalmology, and Center for Visual Science

Contact Information

  • Meliora 253
  • Brain and Cognitive Sciences
  • University of Rochester
  • Rochester, NY 14627-0268
  • (585) 275-2460 (office)
  • (585) 271-3043 (fax)

Office Hours

By appointment.

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Research Overview

Curriculum Vitae

The brain is a device that transforms information from the environment into subjective experience, thoughts, and action. To understand how it does this one must discover its underlying functional organization: what is the sequence of operations that brings about the transformation between input and output, and how do the various neural structures and their component classes of nerve cells participate in these operations?

To answer those questions, I use a subsystem of the brain, the visual system, that presumably embodies the same principles of operation but presents a more tractable problem. Use of the visual system also allows one to exploit the optical coherence of lasers to create stimuli for perceptual experiments that functionally dissect the visual system, enabling one to observe, for example, specific stages in the cascade of information loss as the signal propagates through the visual system. These techniques also enable one to observe and measure such things as the opening and closing of electrical connections among specific classes of nerve cells in the intact human visual system.

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Animated Demonstrations

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Selected Abstracts

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Recent Publications

Adaptation and contrast gain control

  • Fiser, J., Bex, P.J., & Makous, W.L. (2003). Contrast conservation in human vision. Vision Research, 43(25), 2637-2648. (abstract) (PDF)
  • Makous, W.L. (1997). Fourier models and the loci of adaptation. Journal of the Optical Society of America A, 14, 2323-2345. (PDF)
  • Yang, J., & Makous, W. (1997). Implicit masking constrained by spatial inhomogeneities. Vision Research, 37, 1917-1927. (abstract)
  • MacLeod, D.I.A., Williams, D.R., & Makous, W. (1992). A visual nonlinearity fed by single cones. Vision Research, 32, 347-363. (abstract)
  • Makous, W. (1990). Partitioning visual processes. Advances in Photoreception: Proceedings of a Symposium on Frontiers in Visual Science, pp. 78-102. Washington: National Academy Press.
  • Makous, W. (1987). Changes of illumination. Night Vision: Current Research and Future Directions, (pp. 57-75). Washington: National Academy Press.
  • Buck, S.L., Makous, W., & Piantanida, T. (1983). Background visibility and increment thresholds. Vision Research, 23, 1107-1113. (abstract)
  • Clifton, L., & Makous, W. (1973). Iodate poisoning: Early effect on regeneration of rhodopsin and the ERG. Vision Research, 13, 919-924.
  • Wooten, B.R., & Makous, W. (1973). Test of Brindley's after-image hypothesis. Journal of the Optical Society of America, 63, 1268-1269.
  • Makous, W. (1965). Directional sensitivity in a compound eye (No. 65-2224): University Microfilms.

Binocular interactions

  • Makous, W., & Sanders, R.K. (1978). Suppressive interactions between fused patterns. In J.C. Armington, J. Krauskopf, & B.R. Wooten (Eds.), Visual Psychophysics and Physiology, (pp. 167-179). New York: Academic Press.
  • Makous, W., Teller, D., & Boothe, R. (1976). Binocular interaction in the dark. Vision Research, 16, 473-476.

Color

Complex and natural images

  • Fiser, J., Bex, P.J., & Makous, W.L. (2003). Contrast conservation in human vision. Vision Research, 43(25), 2637-2648. (abstract) (PDF)
  • Bex, P.J., & Makous, W. (2002). Spatial frequency, phase and the contrast of natural images. Journal of the Optical Society of America A, 19(6), 1096-1106.

Conditioned hypoglycemia

  • Porte, D., Jr., Robertson, R.P., Halter, J.B., Kulkosky, P.J., Makous, W., & Woods, S. (1977). Neuroendocrine recognition of glucose: The gluco-receptor hypothesis and the diabetic syndrome. In Y. Katsuki, M. Sato, S. Takagi, & Y. Oomura (Eds.), Food Intake and Chemical Senses, (pp. 331-342). Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press.
  • Woods, S., Hutton, R., & Makous, W. (1970). Conditioned insulin secretion in the albino rat. Proceedings of the Society of Experimental Biology and Medicine, 133, 964-968.
  • Hutton, R., Woods, S., & Makous, W. (1970). Conditioned hypoglycemia: Pseudoconditioning controls. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 71, 198-201.
  • Woods, S., Hutton, R., & Makous, W. (1969). A neural influence over insulin release demon-strated by conditioned hypoglycemia. Diabetes, 18, 376.
  • Woods, S., Makous, W., & Hutton, R. (1969). Temporal parameters of conditioned hypoglycemia. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 69, 301-307.
  • Woods, S., Makous, W., & Hutton, R. (1968). A new technique for conditioned hypoglycemia. Psychonomic Science, 10, 389-390.

Displays

  • Naiman, A., & Makous, W. (1993). Information transmission for sub-pixel edge positioning. Journal of the Society for Information Display, 1, 437-447.
  • Naiman, A., & Makous, W. (1992). Spatial non-linearities of grayscale CRT pixels. SPIE Proceedings: Human Vision, Visual Processing, and Digital Display III, 1666, 41-56. (abstract)
  • Gould, J.D., & Makous, W. (1968). Vision and lasers: Human factors of laser displays. Information Display, 5, 25-30.

Horseshoe crab

  • Makous, W. (1969). Conditioning in the horseshoe crab. Psychonomic Science, 14, 4-6.
  • Makous, W. (1965). Directional sensitivity in a compound eye (No. 65-2224): University Microfilms.
  • Makous, W. (1964). Photoreception in the horseshoe crab : IBM Research Report RC-1305.

Information

  • Naiman, A., & Makous, W. (1993). Information transmission for sub-pixel edge positioning. Journal of the Society for Information Display, 1, 437-447.
  • Hunt, E., & Makous, W. (1969). Some characteristics of human information processing. Advances in Information Systems Sciences, 2, 283-335.

Lower senses

  • Makous, W. (1966). Cutaneous color sensitivity: Explanation and demonstration. Psychological Review, 73, 280-294.
  • Makous, W. (1966). Dermoptical perception. Science, 152, 1109.
  • Makous, W., Nord, S., Oakley, B., & Pfaffmann, C. (1963). The gustatory relay in the medulla. In Y. Zotterman (Ed.), Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Olfaction and Taste, pp. 381-393. NYC: Pergamon Press.

Methods

  • Makous, W. (1998). Optics. In R.H.S. Carpenter & J.G. Robson (Eds.), Vision Research: A Practical Guide to Laboratory Methods, pp. 1-49. Oxford (England): Oxford University Press.
  • Naiman, A., & Makous, W. (1992). Spatial non-linearities of grayscale CRT pixels. SPIE Proceedings: Human Vision, Visual Processing, and Digital Display III, 1666, 41-56. (abstract)
  • Teller, D.Y., Mayer, D.L., Makous, W.L., & Allen, J.L. (1982). Do preferential looking techniques underestimate infant visual acuity? Vision Research, 22, 1017-1024.
  • Buck, S.L., & Makous, W. (1982). Calibrating Maxwellian-view optical systems. Journal of the Optical Society of America, 72, 960-962.
  • Makous, W. (1974). Optimal patterns for alignment. Applied Optics, 13, 659-664.
  • Makous, W. (1971). Visual and optical factors in wafer-to-mask alignment. IBM Research Report, RC-3515.
  • Gould, J.D., & Makous, W. (1968). Vision and lasers: Human factors of laser displays. Information Display, 5, 25-30.

Models and modeling

  • Carney, T., Klein, S.A., Beutter, B., Norcia, A., Chen, C.-C., Tyler, C.W., Makous, W., Watson, A., Cropper, S.J., Popple, A.V., Robertson, K., Manahilov, V., Simpson, B., & Wenzel, K. (2002). Extending the modelfest image/threshold database into the spatio-temporal domain. Proceedings of the SPIE: Human Vision and Electronic Imaging VII, 4662, 138-148.
  • Carney, T., Tyler, C.W., Watson, A.B., Makous, W., Beutter, B., Chen, C.-C., Norcia, A.M., & Klein, S.A. (2000). Modelfest: Year one results and plans for future years. Proceedings of the SPIE, 3959, 140-151.
  • Carney, T., Klein, S.A., Tyler, C.W., Silverstein, A.D., Beutter, B., Levi, D., Watson, A.B., Reeves, A.J., Norcia, A.M., Chen, C.-C., Makous, W., & Eckstein, M.P. (1999). The development of an image/threshold database for designing and testing human vision models. Proceedings of the SPIE, 3644, 542-51.
  • Makous, W.L. (1997). Fourier models and the loci of adaptation. Journal of the Optical Society of America A, 14, 2323-2345. (PDF)
  • Yang, J., Qi, X., & Makous, W. (1995). Zero frequency masking and a model of contrast sensitivity. Vision Research, 35, 1965-1978. (abstract)
  • Yang, J., & Makous, W. (1995). Modeling pedestal experiments with amplitude instead of contrast. Vision Research, 35, 1979-1989. (abstract)
  • Yang, J., & Makous, W. (1994). Spatiotemporal separability in contrast sensitivity. Vision Research, 34, 2569-2575. (abstract)
  • Naiman, A., & Makous, W. (1993). Undetected gray strips displace perceived edges nonlinearly. Journal of the Optical Society of America A, 10, 794-803. (abstract)

Motion

  • Rainville, S.J.M., Scott-Samuel, N.E., & Makous, W.L. (2002). The spatial properties of opponent-motion normalization. Vision Research, 42(14), 1727-1738. (abstract)
  • Bex, P.J., Metha, A.B., & Makous, W. (1999). Enhanced motion aftereffect for complex motions. Vision Research, 39, 2229-38. (abstract)
  • Bex, P.J., Metha, A.B., & Makous, W. (1998). Psychophysical evidence for a functional hierarchy of motion processing mechanisms. Journal of the Optical Society of America A, 15, 769-776. (PDF) (abstract)
  • Bex, P.J., & Makous, W. (1997). Radial motion looks faster. Vision Research, 37, 3399-3405. (abstract)

Neuropharmacology

  • Lai, H., Makous, W., Horita, A., & Leung, H. (1979). Effects of ethanol on turnover and function of striatal dopamine. Psychopharmacology, 61, 1-9.
  • Lai, H., Quock, R.M., Makous, W., Horita, A., & Jen, L.S. (1978). Methylazoxymethanol acetate: Effect of postnatal injection on brain amines and behavior. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior, 8, 251-257.
  • Lai, H., Makous, W., Quock, R.M., & Horita, A. (1978). Visual deprivation affects serotonin levels in the visual system. Journal of Neurochemistry, 30, 1187-1189.
  • Porte, D., Jr., Robertson, R.P., Halter, J.B., Kulkosky, P.J., Makous, W., & Woods, S. (1977). Neuroendocrine recognition of glucose: The gluco-receptor hypothesis and the diabetic syndrome. In Y. Katsuki, M. Sato, S. Takagi, & Y. Oomura (Eds.), Food Intake and Chemical Senses, (pp. 331-342). Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press.
  • Woods, S., Hutton, R., & Makous, W. (1970). Conditioned insulin secretion in the albino rat. Proceedings of the Society of Experimental Biology and Medicine, 133, 964-968.

Nonlinearities and interferometry

  • DeVries, S., Qi, X., Smith, R., Makous, W., & Sterling, P. (2002). Electrical coupling between mammalian cones. Current Biology, 12, 1900-1907. (abstract)
  • Chen, B., Makous, W., & Williams, D.R. (1993). Serial spatial filters in vision. Vision Research, 33, 413-27. (abstract)
  • Naiman, A., & Makous, W. (1993). Undetected gray strips displace perceived edges nonlinearly. Journal of the Optical Society of America A, 10, 794-803. (abstract)
  • MacLeod, D.I.A., Williams, D.R., & Makous, W. (1992). A visual nonlinearity fed by single cones. Vision Research, 32, 347-363. (abstract)
  • Makous, W. (1990). Partitioning visual processes, Advances in photoreception. Proceedings of a Symposium on Frontiers in Visual Science, pp. 78-102. Washington: National Academy Press.

Optics

  • Makous, W. (1998). Optics. In R.H.S. Carpenter & J.G. Robson (Eds.), Vision Research: A Practical Guide to Laboratory Methods, pp. 1-49. Oxford (England): Oxford University Press.
  • Chen, B., & Makous, W. (1989). Light capture by human cones. Journal of Physiology (London), 414, 89-109. (abstract)
  • Buck, S.L., & Makous, W. (1982). Calibrating Maxwellian-view optical systems. Journal of the Optical Society of America, 72, 960-962.
  • Makous, W. (1974). Optimal patterns for alignment. Applied Optics, 13, 659-664.
  • Makous, W. (1971). Visual and optical factors in wafer-to-mask alignment. IBM Research Report, RC-3515.
  • Makous, W., & Gould, J.D. (1968). Effects of lasers on the human eye. IBM Journal of Research and Development, 12, 257-271.

Philosophy of science

  • Makous, W. (2000). Limits to our knowledge. Science, 287(5457), 1399.
  • Makous, W.L. (1997). Fourier models and the loci of adaptation. Journal of the Optical Society of America A, 14, 2323-2345. (PDF)

Rods, cones, and their interactions

  • Makous, W. (2003). Scotopic vision. In J.S. Werner & L.M. Chalupa (Eds.), The Visual Neurosciences, pp. 838-850. Boston: MIT Press.
  • Buck, S.L., & Makous, W. (1981). Rod-cone interaction on large and small backgrounds. Vision Research, 21, 1181-1187.
  • Buck, S.L., Peeples, D.R., & Makous, W. (1979). Spatial patterns of rod-cone interaction. Vision Research, 19, 775-782.
  • Makous, W., & Peeples, D.R. (1979). Rod-cone interaction: Reconciliation with Flamant and Stiles. Vision Research, 19, 695-698.
  • Makous, W., & Boothe, R. (1974). Cones block signals from rods. Vision Research, 14, 285-294.

Sensitivity

  • Makous, W. (1990). Absolute sensitivity. In R.F. Hess & K. Nordby (Eds.), Night Vision: Basic, Clinical and Applied Aspects, pp. 146-176. Cambridge (England): Cambridge University Press.
  • Makous, W. (1987). Overview. Night Vision: Current Research and Future Directions, pp. 305-312. Washington: National Academy Press.
  • Pulos, E., & Makous, W. (1982). Changes of visual sensitivity caused by on- and off-transients. Vision Research, 22, 879-887. (abstract)
  • Pulos, E., Raymond, J.E., & Makous, W. (1980). Transient sensitization by a contrast flash. Vision Research, 20, 281-288.
  • Makous, W. (1966). Cutaneous color sensitivity: Explanation and demonstration. Psychological Review, 73, 280-294.

Spatial vision

  • Makous, W. (2003). Threshold and suprathreshold spatiotemporal contrast sensitivity. In R.G. Driggers (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Optical Engineering (pp. 2828-2850). New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.
  • Bex, P.J., & Makous, W. (2002). Spatial frequency, phase and the contrast of natural images. Journal of the Optical Society of America A, 19(6), 1096-1106. (PDF) (abstract)
  • DeVries, S., Qi, X., Smith, R., Makous, W., & Sterling, P. (2002). Electrical coupling between mammalian cones. Current Biology, 12, 1900-1907. (abstract)
  • O'Brien, H.L., Tetewsky, S.J., Avery, L.M., Cushman, L.A., Makous, W., & J.Duffy, C. (2001). Visual mechanisms of spatial disorientation in Alzheimer's disease. Cerebral Cortex, 11, 1083-1092. (PDF) (abstract)
  • Makous, W.L. (1997). Fourier models and the loci of adaptation. Journal of the Optical Society of America A, 14, 2323-2345. (PDF)
  • Yang, J., & Makous, W. (1997). Implicit masking constrained by spatial inhomogeneities. Vision Research, 37, 1917-1927. (abstract)
  • Yang, J., Qi, X., & Makous, W. (1995). Zero frequency masking and a model of contrast sensitivity. Vision Research, 35, 1965-1978. (abstract)
  • Yang, J., & Makous, W. (1995). Modeling pedestal experiments with amplitude instead of contrast. Vision Research, 35, 1979-1989. (abstract)
  • Yang, J., & Makous, W. (1994). Spatiotemporal separability in contrast sensitivity. Vision Research, 34, 2569-2575. (abstract)
  • Naiman, A., & Makous, W. (1993). Undetected gray strips displace perceived edges nonlinearly. Journal of the Optical Society of America A, 10, 794-803. (abstract)
  • Chen, B., Makous, W., & Williams, D.R. (1993). Serial spatial filters in vision. Vision Research, 33, 413-27. (abstract)
  • MacLeod, D.I.A., Williams, D.R., & Makous, W. (1992). A visual nonlinearity fed by single cones. Vision Research, 32, 347-363. (abstract)
  • Buck, S.L., Makous, W., & Piantanida, T. (1983). Background visibility and increment thresholds. Vision Research, 23, 1107-1113. (abstract)
  • Buck, S.L., & Makous, W. (1981). Rod-cone interaction on large and small backgrounds. Vision Research, 21, 1181-1187.
  • Buck, S.L., Peeples, D.R., & Makous, W. (1979). Spatial patterns of rod-cone interaction. Vision Research, 19, 775-782.
  • Makous, W. (1974). Optimal patterns for alignment. Applied Optics, 13, 659-664.

Stiles-Crawford effect

  • Chen, B., & Makous, W. (1989). Light capture by human cones. Journal of Physiology (London), 414, 89-109. (abstract)
  • Makous, W. (1968). Transient Stiles-Crawford effect. Vision Research, 8, 1271-1284.
  • Makous, W. (1965). Directional sensitivity in a compound eye (No. 65-2224): University Microfilms.

Temporal vision

  • Makous, W. (2003). Threshold and suprathreshold spatiotemporal contrast sensitivity. In R.G. Driggers (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Optical Engineering (pp. 2828-2850). New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.
  • Makous, W.L. (1997). Fourier models and the loci of adaptation. Journal of the Optical Society of America A, 14, 2323-2345. (PDF)
  • Mandler, M.B., & Makous, W. (1984). A three channel model of temporal frequency perception. Vision Research, 24, 1881-1887. (abstract)
  • Pulos, E., & Makous, W. (1982). Changes of visual sensitivity caused by on- and off-transients. Vision Research, 22, 879-887. (abstract)
  • Pulos, E., Raymond, J.E., & Makous, W. (1980). Transient sensitization by a contrast flash. Vision Research, 20, 281-288.
  • Makous, W. (1968). Transient Stiles-Crawford effect. Vision Research, 8, 1271-1284.

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Research Support

My research is supported by the National Eye Institute.

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Courses

Undergraduate

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Last modified: 01/03/2008
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